Ground effects on V/STOL and STOL aircraft: A survey

The flow fields encountered by jet- and fan-powered Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) aircraft operating in ground effect are reviewed and their general effects on the aerodynamic characteristics are discussed. The ground effects considered include: (1) the suckdown experienced by a single jet configuration in hover; (2) the fountain flow and additional suckdown experienced by multiple jet configurations in hover; (3) the ground vortex generated by jet and jet flap configurations in short takeoff and landing (STOL) operation and the associated aerodynamic and hot-gas-ingestion effects; and (4) the change in the downwash at the tail due to ground proximity. After over 30 years of research on V/STOL aircraft, the general flow phenomena are well-known and, in most areas, the effects of ground proximity can be established or can be determined experimentally. However, there are some anomalies in the current data base which are discussed.