Mars atmosphere evolution: Escape to space

The loss mechanisms and the rates of escape, to space, of Martian atmosphere constituents have changed throughout the history of the solar system. For the first billion years, Mars' atmosphere escape was probably dominated by impact erosion related to the presence of debris left over from the accretionary phase. This loss was further augmented by hydrodynamic outflows related to the presence of an early denser atmosphere and a sun that was brighter in the EUV wavelengths. Following this initial 'catastrophic' phase, during which a large fraction of the original atmosphere was lost but then replaced by volcanism and cometary impact, the 'modern' loss mechanisms which still operate today would have taken over. Those mechanisms that now contribute to escape to space consist of classical thermal or Jeans escape, nonthermal escape due to chemical reaction in the atmosphere, and solar wind-related losses. Both the loss mechanisms and the rates of escape are discussed.