Impulsive phase transport

The transport of nonthermal electrons is explored. The thick-target electron beam model, in which electrons are presumed to be accelerated in the corona and typically thermalized primarily in the chromosphere and photosphere, is supported by observations throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. At the highest energies, the anisotropy of gamma-ray emission above 10 MeV clearly indicates that these photons are emitted by anisotropically-directed particles. The timing of this high-energy gamma-radiation with respect to lower-energy hard X-radiation implies that the energetic particles have short life-times. For collisional energy loss, this means that they are stopped in the chromosphere or below. Stereoscopic (two-spacecraft) observations at hard X-ray energies (up to 350 keV) imply that these lower-energy (but certainly nonthermal) electrons are also stopped deep in the chromosphere. Hard X-ray images show that, in spatially resolved flares whose radiation consists of impulsive bursts, the impulsive phase starts with X-radiation that comes mostly from the foot-points of coronal loops whose coronal component is outlined by microwaves.